AFRICAN – AMERICAN LEADERSHIP AND MASS MOBILIZATION. mass mobilizations in African-American communities have. FBI memorandum from Director Hoover to field offices regarding Counter Intelligence Program. Youth Leadership Programs. The California Legislative Black Caucus (CLBC). African American Leaders for Tomorrow Program. The African American Leaders for Tomorrow (AALTP), formerly (African American Youth Leadership. The Dr. Josie R. Johnson Leadership Academy is a year-long leadership training program designed to. Learn more. Home African American Leadership Forum. posted 8 hours ago. UPDATE. African American Leadership Forum. posted 2. AFRICAN AMERICAN LEADERSHIP AND MASSDURING THE THIRTEEN. YEARS after Rosa Parks initiated the Montgomery bus boycott movement, African. Americans launched a series of escalating protest movements and insurgencies. Small- scale acts of civil disobedience sparked sustained civil rights campaigns. These non- violent. The mass struggles of the early 1. African Americans on national politics, prompting the passage. As these struggles became. In the years since 1. African- American communities. This article explores. LEADERSHIP: FROM THE. TOP AS FROM THE BOTTOMModern African- American history focuses. African- American organizations or their leaders. National civil rights leaders. In contrast. mass protests and demonstrations at the local level gave political leverage. African Americans. Black power proponents of the mid- 1. Civil rights. protest movements of the 1. Instead, African- American mass movements. Such. leaders also faced new competition from emergent grassroots leaders more in. The Montgomery bus boycott, for example. December 1. 95. 5 as the result of an unplanned, independent act of defiance. Rosa Parks, an officer of the local NAACP chapter. Martin Luther King, Jr.. Women's Political Council, led by Jo Ann Robinson, had launched the. I did not start this boycott," King. I was asked by you to serve. I am stopped this movement will not stop."2. As later movements provided opportunities for other emergent leaders, the Montgomery. King's exceptional talents as a conciliator. The NAACP's national office assisted. Montgomery movement, but the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) directed. The Southern Christian Leadership Conference. SCLC), formed after the successful conclusion of the boycott, more accurately. King and other protest leaders. The SCLC, led by King, did not exert. After the initial Greensboro sit- in on February 1, 1. SCLC, NAACP, and the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) were among the organizations. However, student protesters insisted on forming independent local. Even the Student Non- violent Coordinating. Committee (SNCC), founded in April 1. SNCC distinguished itself. CORE INITIATED THE FREEDOM RIDES. Of 1. 96. 1, but this desegregation effort did not become a social movement until. CORE abandoned the rides when white racists attacked its initial contingent. Student militants, many of them veterans of the sit- ins, then took over the. Dozens of the most committed freedom riders served terms in Mississippi. Mississippi and other. Accepting the aid but rarely the advice of the. SNCC's decentralized structure. From 1. 96. 1 to 1. Albany protests of December 1. Local leaders. - often affiliated with but acting independently of the NAACP, SCLC, or CORE. King's SCLC attempted to orchestrate the Birmingham demonstrations of Spring. Fred Shuttlesworth, leader of the Alabama Christian. Movement for Human Rights, had already prepared the ground. In Birmingham, as. Furthermore, as the Birmingham campaign garnered national attention and sparked. When veteran labor leader. A. Philip Randolph proposed a march on Washington, he argued in a June 1. President Kennedy that "the Negroes are already in the streets. It is very likely impossible to get them off." Randolph assured Kennedy that. If they are bound to be in the streets. Randolph's remarks underscored the new political direction: Black Power. THE EMERGENCE OF THE. BLACK POWER MOVEMENTThe national civil rights organizations. Black Belt voting rights campaign, but in this instance too local. In areas of. Mississippi and Alabama where white resistance was most fierce, SNCC (and to. CORE and SCLC) organizers worked under the auspices of the Council. Federated Organizations (COFO), a coordinating body led by black Mississippians. Once again, these organizers were effective only to the extent that they secured. The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party. MFDP), formed in 1. This gulf became evident at the Democratic National. Convention of 1. 96. Lyndon Johnson's supporters indicated that they would. MFDP delegates rather than displace the entire all- white regular. King and other national civil rights leaders argued in favor of. Fannie Lou Hamer spoke for the majority of MFDP delegates. We didn't come all this way for no two seats!"6. The formation during the following year of the Lowndes County Freedom Organization. LCFO) in Alabama symbolized the determination of black grassroots activists. The LCFO's slogan, "Black Power for Black People," established. African- American militancy. By the time of the Selma to Montgomery. African- American freedom struggle. The Los Angeles rebellion. August 1. 96. 5 accelerated the ongoing shift in the focus of African- American. Nevertheless, as during the period of civil rights protests. Indeed, mass mobilizations in black communities often took the form of inchoate. During the mid- 1. Black power advocates. Moreover, both civil rights and black. Black leaders could more easily deliver. In. contrast, tangible goals, such as jobs, housing, services, and representation. African Americans. Black power proponents. African Americans than to change racial. As a result, the black consciousness movements of the 1. The black masses. THE LEGACY OF MALCOM. XMALCOLM X INFLUENCED MANY of the. However, his intellectual legacy did not bridge the divide between. Despite his rhetorical support for. Malcolm himself did not lead a protest or insurgent movement. Indeed, Malcolm's principal contribution to the black nationalist tradition. As Malcolm observed. Although. Malcolm continued to challenge King and other established civil rights leaders. Nation of Islam's apolitical orientation. I felt that, wherever black people committed themselves, in the Little Rocks. Birminghams and other places, militantly disciplined Muslims should. It could be. heard increasingly in the Negro communities: 'Those Muslims talk tough, but. Muslims."7. By the time of the March on Washington, Malcolm combined attacks on national. After leaving the Nation of Islam. Malcolm formed the Organization of Afro- American Unity (OAAU) and began reaching. In October 1. 96. Africa. he met with SNCC representatives, convincing them to cooperate with his newly- . In December he hosted Fannie Lou Hamer and other MFDP leaders. Harlem OAAU meeting and also met with a delegation of teenagers from the. Mc. Comb, Mississippi movement. During February 1. Selma, Alabama. to address young voting rights activists. While there he attempted to meet with. Martin Luther King, Jr., but, because the civil rights leader was in jail, he. Coretta Scott King of his desire to aid the civil rights struggle. By. the time of his assassination on February 2. Malcolm's variant of black nationalism. Many of Malcolm's posthumous followers. Nation of Islam, the group. Malcolm as a traitor "worthy of death.""1. After his death, most followers gave more attention to Malcolm's criticisms. Malcolm's intellectual. Black power advocates, such as Stokely. Carmichael and H. Rap Brown, and Black Panther leaders popularized Malcolm's. Black power militancy produced lasting ideological. Intending to create a unified. In retrospect, the assassination. Malcolm X can be seen as the prototype of subsequent deadly and demoralizing. Rather than serving as "organic intellectuals"1. Narrowly conceived. African Americans instead divided them. Black ideologues unwittingly competed. FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, could "unify and electrify the militant black nationalist movement."1. GROUP- CENTERED" LEADERSHIP. VS."LEADERSHIP- CENTERED" GROUPSAcceptance of the notion that the. The ideas of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X have become far. African- American youth than have the. King and Malcolm. Great Men who were agents of historical. They have become symbols of the two. African- American ideologies that made possible the mass struggles. These two male icons have become far. African- American history. Contemporary. black youth are likely to see King and Malcolm as representing irreconcilable. African- American experience. The legacy of the modern African- American. The most successful black organizers. The most successful SNCC. SNCC's organizing approach. Ella Baker, who suffered elitism and sexism as a. NAACP and director of SCLC's headquarters. Rejecting. King's charismatic style, Baker advised SNCC organizers to promote "group- centered. The most effective organizers. They. avoided replacing old dependencies with new ones. The black freedom struggle's. THE EMPHASIS OF IDEOLOGYOVER ORGANIZINGAFRICAN- AMERICAN POLITICAL MILITANCY. Malcolm X than from the organizing techniques developed by Ella Baker. African- American. King and. Malcolm symbolize alternative directions for future black politics, but both. Unlike many of their. King and Malcolm moved during their last years toward ideological. African- American. Rather than symbolizing irreconcilable positions, King and. Malcolm represent complementary understandings of the dilemmas facing black. Both men understood the importance of building strong, black- controlled. African- American communities. Both realized that non- violent. Martin was firmly committed to racial reconciliation and nonviolence, but his. Where Do We Go From Here? Chaos or Community contains a moving. One of the tragic consequences of. King and Malcolm has been that they were unable to control. Had they lived. they may have been able to restrain followers who assumed that building strong. American. citizens. King recognized that African Americans would never be free until they. Malcolm understood that freedom could be achieved only through. They would certainly. More importantly, they would have remained human beings with flaws and limitations. At a birthday celebration for Ella. Baker held in 1. 97. Mississippi organizer Bob Moses remarked that SNCC. King had addressed. Where Do We Go from Here? The problem with that question. We,' who we are," Moses explained. Because, if you really stop to think. African- American debates over issues of. The traditions of civil rights activism and that of black nationalism each offer. African- American identity and destiny.
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